
Cook Voyages 2 and 3

James Cook par Nathaniel Dance. 1775
National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, UK
Courtesy Wikimedia Commons – Accessed 10 March – 2021
Introduction – Cook Voyages 2 and 3
About a month after returning from his first voyage to the Pacific Cook was promoted to Commander, and in November received orders from the Admiralty for a second expedition. This was the one of Cooks later voyages.
Cook’s first voyage had been a great success and heightened curiosity about the great southern land. To meet the demand the Royal Society commissioned two ships to explore further, HMS Resolution, under Cook’s command and HMS Adventure under captain Tobias Furneaux, Cook’s second-in-command.
Though productive botanically the significance of these voyages to Australia lie in the nine days spent in Adventure Bay, Van Diemen’s Land (Furneaux for five days in 1773, Cook for four days in 1777) along with an appraisal of the potential of Norfolk Island for possible settlement and as a potential source of timber for shipping and flax for the British textile factories.
Banks was invited to join the team but eventually declined after bickering about his allotted space. Nevertheless he recommended Prussian Johann Forster, a member of the Royal Society, as naturalist for the voyage. Forster’s father was English and was known for his translations of foreign travel. Johann, in turn, chose his 17-year-old son Georg as ship’s artist. By studying the Endeavour collections of Banks & Solander the family duo prepared for what they might encounter. Like those before them the Forsters used Solander’s text in later publications, with little acknowledgement.[1]
The second voyage (1772-1775)
The Resolution and Adventure sailed from Plymouth in 1772, putting in at the Cape of Good Hope where they were joined by Swedish botanist Anders Sparrman, a former pupil of Linnaeus. Although there were rich botanical pickings in New Zealand later published by the Forsters in several volumes.[check] Cook did not land in either New Holland or Van Diemens Land but Furneaux, after being separated from the Resolution headed for the Van Diemen’s land’s Storm Bay (named after the storm that had prevented Abel Tasman from landing there 130 years before in 1642) on Bruny Island off the south-east coast.
Adventure Bay
HMS Adventure remained in Storm bay for five days in March 1773 replenishing the water supply and carrying out repairs. Furneaux was to change the name Storm to Adventure Bay, to commemorate his ship, and it would prove a popular anchorage on the way from the Cape of Good Hope to Port Jackson, being later visited by Cook (HMS Resolution 1777), Bligh (HMS Bounty 1788, HMS Providence 1792 ), Bruni d’Entrecasteaux (Recherche 1792, 1792), (Flinders attempted entry in HMS Norfolk in 1798), and Baudin (in the Géographe in 1802), subsequently being used as a base for whaling and the timber industry.
Cook accepted with some reservation, Furneaux’s conclusion that Van Diemen’s Land was part of the mainland. From the Cape of Good Hope Cook sailed into the high latitudes, actually crossing the Antarctic Circle for the first time in history, to be confronted by an ice pack at latitude 67o15’, just 120 km short of the undiscovered continent of Antarctica.[2]
Norfolk Island flax and pines
Returning to warmer seas on 11 October 1774 Cook put in to Norfolk Island (one of many islands in the region). Here the flax plant grew more densely than on New Zealand and Cook noted the straight ‘pines’ (Araucaria heterophylla), cutting a sample which was used successfully as a topgallant (cross bar for the small sail at the top of the mast) and concluded that here was a source of sound timber for masts – an observation that had greater commercial implications than any findings and observations made on economic potential of plants growing on New Holland shores.
Cook returned to England in July 1775; it had been a three-year odyssey on which he had lost only one man out of 118. The Forsters’ botanical account of the voyage was published in 1776.[7]
Cook’s Second Voyage Timeline
1772
July 13: Captain James Cook departs from Plymouth, England, aboard the HMS Resolution, accompanied by the HMS Adventure under Captain Tobias Furneaux. The expedition aims to explore the South Pacific and search for the fabled southern continent.
September 17: Cook reaches the Cape of Good Hope, where he takes on supplies and makes necessary repairs to the ships.
November 30: The expedition leaves the Cape, heading towards the South Pacific, with the intention of exploring the region around New Zealand and the South Seas.
1773
January 24: Cook arrives in New Zealand, revisiting the areas explored during his first voyage. He conducts further surveys and charts the coastline.
February 6: Cook departs New Zealand and sails towards the Antarctic region, aiming to reach the southernmost latitude.
March 16: Cook reaches 71°10′S latitude, becoming one of the first explorers to venture into the Antarctic Circle. He encounters harsh weather conditions, forcing him to turn back due to ice.
March 30: The expedition sails northward, exploring various islands in the South Pacific, including the Marquesas Islands.
June 12: Cook arrives in Tahiti, where he spends several weeks conducting scientific observations and establishing friendly relations with the local population.
1774
January 14: After departing Tahiti, Cook continues his journey, exploring the islands of Tonga and Fiji, documenting their geography and culture.
July 12: Cook returns to New Zealand, conducting further surveys of the coastlines and mapping previously uncharted areas.
September 1: The expedition heads back towards the eastern coast of Australia, where Cook continues to explore and chart the region.
1775
January 19: Cook departs from New Zealand, heading back to England. The voyage has yielded significant scientific and geographical discoveries.
July 30: Cook and his crew arrive back in Plymouth, England, completing a three-year voyage that significantly expanded European knowledge of the Pacific region.
September 12: Cook presents his findings to the Royal Society, highlighting the discoveries made during the voyage, including new islands, detailed maps, and observations of various cultures (AI Sider July 2024).
Plants of the Second Voyage
Captain James Cook’s second voyage (1772-1775) was not only a maritime adventure of unprecedented scope but also a significant event in the history of botany. With an emphasis on scientific exploration, this expedition aimed at expanding knowledge about the flora and fauna of the South Pacific. The journey was marked by substantial botanical findings that would have lasting implications for Britain and the wider world.
Commissioned by the Royal Society, Cook’s voyage included prominent naturalists, notably Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander, who were charged with documenting plant life encountered during the journey. The expedition set sail aboard HMS Resolution and HMS Adventure, focusing on regions previously unexplored by Europeans. Cook and his crew meticulously collected samples of new plant species, investigating their properties and potential uses.
During the voyage, significant stops were made at various islands, including the Marquesas, Tahiti, and Tonga. The expedition’s botanists collected hundreds of specimens, many of which were entirely new to European science. In Tahiti, for example, Banks and Solander gathered over 300 plant species, including the famous breadfruit tree (Artocarpus altilis), which would later play a crucial role in British agricultural interests. The potential for breadfruit as a staple crop was recognized, stimulating interest in its cultivation in the Caribbean and other colonies.
As the expedition continued towards New Zealand and the coasts of South America, Banks and Solander recorded numerous indigenous plants, many of which had medicinal properties. For instance, the New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) was identified as a valuable resource for producing ropes and textiles, influencing British textile manufacturing methods.
The systematic approach to plant collection and classification employed by Cook’s botanists laid foundational principles for future botanical studies. Banks, recognized as a leading botanist of his time, championed the importance of careful fieldwork and the systematic documentation of plant morphology. His work promoted botanical science in Britain, fostering a greater public interest in the natural world.
Upon returning to England in 1775, the botanical specimens collected during Cook’s voyage became the subject of extensive study and discussion. Banks played a pivotal role in disseminating this knowledge to both the scientific community and the general public. The specimens contributed to the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, which became a central institution for the study of plants and botany. This influx of knowledge established Britain as a leader in botanical sciences during the late 18th century.
The consequences of Cook’s second voyage were profound. The introduction of new crops such as breadfruit revolutionized agriculture in British colonies, contributing to food security and the economy. Furthermore, the voyage’s scientific findings fostered a growing interest in botany, leading to increased exploration and colonization of other regions. As British naturalists embarked on subsequent voyages, they built upon the foundations laid by Cook’s expedition, further connecting the British Empire with global botanical diversity.
In summary, the botany conducted during Captain Cook’s second voyage had significant ramifications not only for Britain’s botanical science but also for its agricultural practices and colonial policies. The exchange of botanical knowledge continued to influence global agricultural systems and trade, highlighting the intertwined nature of exploration, botany, and imperial interests. Cook’s voyage thus stands as a pivotal moment in the evolution of botanical science and its impacts on British society and the world at large (AI Sider July 2024).
The third voyage (1776-1779)
When the ships returned Banks and Smith were quick to buy a duplicate herbarium of specimens and illustrations that had been produced from the voyage.[3]
The scientific world was in awe of Cook’s achievements, but the much lionized and decorated Cook could not acquiesce, setting out yet again in July 1776 with HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery, this time with the major goal of finding the elusive north-west passage, a sea route connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through the Arctic Ocean passing across the northern coast of North America through the tricky Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Storage room was created for some domestic stock and further provisions and fodder loaded at Tenerife and the Cape and provision made for planting vegetables at key landing points. Tahitian Omai (who he had brought back to London from his second voyage) was also to be returned to his homeland. He first returned Omai then set about his main task – but finding the Bering Strait impassable he returned to Hawai’i, but by making further demand for supplies he had outstayed his welcome and, after a series of altercations, was killed by the inhabitants on 14 February 1779.
Adventure Bay
Naturalists on this last fateful voyage for Cook were surgeon-naturalist William Anderson, and David Nelson a gardener from Kew. Andrson who was Surgeon’s mate on the second voyage was promoted to Surgeon-Naturalist on the third (he was to die on 3 Aug. 1778 while searching for the new passage). Botanical finds on the voyage were made during a four day stay in Adventure Bay from 26-30 January 1777 when plants and seed were collected by the naturalists William Anderson and David Nelson, among the collections being specimens of Eucalyptus obliqua deposited at Kew and from which Frenchman Charles L’Héritier published the first description of the genus Eucalyptus in 1788. While in the bay Anderson made extensive notes on the natural history of the area from Resolution inlet to Penguin Island, collected live plants of Melaleuca squarrosa for return to England, and planted a small vegetable and fruit garden.[4]
Cook’s Third Voyage Timeline
1776: Departure and Initial Exploration
July 12, 1776: Captain James Cook departs Plymouth, England, commanding the HMS Resolution and accompanied by the HMS Discovery, under Captain Charles Clerke.
August 18, 1776: The expedition arrives at Tenerife in the Canary Islands for resupply.
1777: Pacific Exploration
January 18, 1777: Cook and his crew reach the Marquesas Islands, conducting early explorations and interactions with the local population.
March 26, 1777: Arrival in the Society Islands, where the crew collects botanical specimens and observes local flora, including the breadfruit tree.
1778: North America and the Hawaiian Islands
January 18, 1778: Cook’s ships land at Kauai in the Hawaiian Islands, marking the first European contact with the islands. The crew collects a variety of plant specimens.
February 1778: Exploration of the Hawaiian Islands continues, leading to significant interactions with native Hawaiians and extensive botanical documentation.
March 1778: After leaving Hawaii, Cook sails to the northwest coast of North America, arriving at Nootka Sound (modern-day British Columbia) in April.
1779: Final Expedition and Legacy
January 28, 1779: Cook re-approaches the Hawaiian Islands, initially welcomed, but tensions arise leading to conflict.
February 14, 1779: Conflict escalates at Kealakekua Bay, resulting in Cook’s death during a confrontation with Hawaiian warriors.
February 22, 1779: Captain Charles Clerke assumes command of the expedition following Cook’s death. The crew continues to document and collect specimens.
1779: Return to England
October 4, 1779: The HMS Resolution returns to England, bringing with it extensive botanical collections and a wealth of knowledge about the Pacific region and its flora.
1779-1780: An extensive analysis of collected specimens begins, contributing to the scientific community and British botanical studies AI Sider July 2024).
Plants of the Third Voyage
Captain James Cook’s third voyage (1776-1779) culminated in significant botanical discoveries that expanded European knowledge of the flora in the Pacific region and had lasting effects on Britain and its global empire. This expedition, which aimed to explore the northern Pacific, also focused on documenting the diverse plant life encountered along the journey.
Accompanied by botanist Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Georg Forster, Cook’s crew meticulously collected specimens across various territories, including the Hawaiian Islands, the western coasts of North America, and the islands of Tahiti and New Zealand. The Forsters, renowned for their expertise in natural history, played a crucial role in cataloging new species and studying their potential applications.
One notable achievement of the voyage was the collection of the Hawaiian silversword (Argyroxiphium sandwicense), a plant emblematic of the unique biodiversity found in the Hawaiian Islands. The Forsters conducted thorough examinations of its morphology and ecology, making vital contributions to understanding its adaptation in a volcanic landscape. Additionally, the expedition documented several species that would later be recognized for their medicinal and agricultural potential.
The voyage also underscored the importance of the breadfruit tree, previously encountered on Cook’s second voyage, as a staple crop capable of thriving in tropical regions. The Forsters’ recommendations for its cultivation in the Caribbean were influential in subsequent initiatives aimed at addressing food shortages in British colonies. The introduction of breadfruit to the Caribbean would later be famously executed during the mutiny on the Bounty, demonstrating the far-reaching impacts of Cook’s botanical findings.
Cook’s observations and the Forsters’ research highlighted the relevance of methodologies in acquiring botanical knowledge. Their practice of systematic collection and classification set benchmarks for future botanical explorations, influencing subsequent expeditions by British naturalists. The emphasis on empirical observation and documentation fostered a greater understanding of the interrelationships between plants and their environments, paving the way for advancements in ecological and agricultural science.
Upon the voyage’s conclusion, the specimens collected were brought back to Britain, enriching the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew and bolstering the country’s scientific reputation. The knowledge gained from Cook’s third voyage greatly contributed to Britain’s expansionist policies, as the understanding of local flora facilitated agricultural practices in various colonies, enhancing food security and economic development.
In conclusion, the botanical endeavors during Cook’s third voyage had profound consequences for both Britain and the broader world. By documenting and introducing new plant species, the voyage reshaped agricultural practices in the empire and stimulated scientific inquiry that would resonate for generations, establishing a legacy of exploration and botanical study that influenced global trade and colonial expansion (AI Sider July 2024).
Commentary
As a character in the period referred to as the Enlightenment Cook’s life spanned the death of Newton and the birth of Darwin at a time when the Royal Society was gaining political influence. The three voyages had earned him international respect for his navigation and cartography. To the existing knowledge of the Pacific he had added the outline of the east coast of New Holland and New Zealand, discovered New Caledonia, accurately placed a number of island groups and established the limits of any possible southern continent(s). He had contributed to nautical medicine through his treatment of the scurvy that had plagued mariners for centuries, returning from his first voyage without losing a single man to this particular curse; he had applied a long-awaited short-hand way of calculating longitude, testing out John Harrison’s revolutionary marine chronometer on his second voyage, revolutionising the calculation of longitude by calculating a ship’s distance to the east or west of a prime meridian more accurately than ever before[6]; he had travelled further south than any other explorer; pioneered the ‘Great Circle’ route[5] to be followed by so many mariners in the years to come; and, finally, on the second voyage, he had put the myth of the Great Southern Land to rest once-and-for-all. Natural history specimens had been brought back by the thousand giving biology, geology, and anthropology a global dimension. It had been a scientific triumph.
As a commercial venture little was gained. Nothing had been found to rival the sugar plantations of the West indies, the tobacco plantations of Virginia, or the spices of the East Indies – although it was hoped that something could be made of the flax and pines which had unrealized economic potential. Could they feed the hungry textile mills of Yorkshire and Lancaster, and supplement the flagging supplies of timber needed to keep a modern navy afloat?
From all three of Cooks voyages plants were returned to England and introduced into cultivation (see page) his peregrinations leading to the English-speaking occupation of Australia and New Zealand and the acquisition of islands of later strategic importance.