Rubber

Rubber – Hevea brasiliensis

Introduction – Rubber

Rubber, as a familiar substance of our daily lives, was originally a major product of colonial expansion and the industrial age although many of the early rubbers have now been replaced by synthetic alternatives. Its human use dates back to the Aztec and Mayan civilizations and South American Indians who used the  latex or ‘cahuchu’ (hence the French caoutchouc) to waterproof clothing and dwellings. Rubber was also rolled into a ball and used in ritual ball games.

The milky sap of rubber trees was being tapped by native Indians when the Spanish arrived in South America in the early 1500s.

In the West its use would escalate with the production of cars and their tyres at the start of the 20th century.

History

It was as the product of the Amazonian tree Hevea brasiliensis, the Pará rubber tree, that became the most popular source of the bouncy rubber used for waterproofing and ball games that we are familiar with today.

Native Indians were enslaved on cruel plantations in Amazonia and the Belgian Congo. This exposed the seamier side of colonial industry with its unregulated market and rubber barons living on vast riverside estates built on slave labour. Atrocities prompted the first human rights movement that led to general concerns about genetic piracy – the exploitation of the resources of foreign countries by wealthy nations. By 1912 the Brazilian industry had collapsed in competition with the industry that had developed in Southeast Asia.

Commercial use

The commercial use of rubber has a rich and fascinating history that spans centuries and continents. From its humble beginnings in Mesoamerica to its widespread industrial applications in the modern world, rubber has played a vital role in shaping the global economy and transforming various industries. This essay will explore the history of the commercial use of rubber, tracing its origins, development, and significant milestones that have influenced its growth and impact on society.

Rubber has been used by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica for thousands of years. The ancient Maya and Aztec civilizations were known to have utilized the latex sap obtained from the rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis, for various purposes such as making waterproof textiles, balls for sports and games, and as an adhesive. These early civilizations recognized the unique properties of rubber, including its elasticity, durability, and waterproof nature, which made it a valuable material for their everyday needs.

The commercial use of rubber began to gain traction in the 18th century when European explorers and naturalists encountered the rubber tree during their expeditions to South America. One of the first documented instances of rubber being introduced to Europe was in 1736 when Charles Marie de La Condamine, a French scientist, brought samples of rubber back to France after his expedition to the Amazon rainforest. However, it was not until the early 19th century that rubber production and trade began to flourish on a larger scale.

The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century played a significant role in the commercialization of rubber. The demand for rubber increased as new industries emerged, such as the textile industry, which required rubber for waterproofing fabrics and machinery. The invention of the pneumatic tire by Scottish inventor Robert William Thomson in 1845 also drove the demand for rubber, as rubber tires offered a smoother and more comfortable ride compared to the traditional solid tires.

One of the key figures in the history of the commercial use of rubber was Charles Goodyear, an American inventor, who discovered the vulcanization process in 1839. Vulcanization is a chemical process that involves treating rubber with sulfur and heat to improve its elasticity, strength, and durability. This breakthrough revolutionized the rubber industry by making rubber more stable and resistant to changes in temperature, thus expanding its potential applications.

The rubber industry experienced rapid growth in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with rubber plantations being established in regions such as Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean to meet the increasing demand for rubber. British colonies in Southeast Asia, particularly Malaysia and Singapore, emerged as major centers of rubber production, thanks to the suitable climate and fertile soil for growing rubber trees.

The introduction of the automobile in the late 19th century further fueled the demand for rubber, as rubber tires became essential components of cars. Companies like Michelin, Goodyear, and Firestone capitalized on this growing market by expanding their production capacity and developing innovative rubber products for various industries. The first synthetic rubber, known as neoprene, was invented by DuPont in 1931, providing an alternative to natural rubber and further diversifying the rubber industry.

The rubber industry faced challenges during World War II when supply chains were disrupted, and natural rubber became scarce due to the Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia, a major rubber-producing region. This scarcity led to the development of synthetic rubber production in the United States and other Allied countries to meet the demands of the war effort. The success of synthetic rubber production during the war paved the way for its continued use in peacetime and diversified the sources of rubber supply globally.

In the post-war period, the rubber industry continued to evolve with advancements in technology and manufacturing processes. The development of new types of rubber, such as butyl rubber and styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), expanded the range of applications for rubber in industries such as construction, healthcare, and electronics. The rise of globalization also transformed the rubber industry, with companies establishing global supply chains and manufacturing facilities to meet the demands of a growing consumer market.

The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw the rubber industry facing new challenges and opportunities with the emergence of environmental concerns and sustainability issues. The impact of deforestation and climate change on natural rubber plantations, as well as the use of harmful chemicals in rubber production, have led to calls for more sustainable practices and alternatives.

In response to these challenges, the rubber industry has been exploring innovative solutions such as sustainable rubber cultivation, recycling of rubber products, and the development of eco-friendly rubber materials. Initiatives like the Sustainable Natural Rubber Initiative (SNR-i) and the Global Platform for Sustainable Natural Rubber (GPSNR) have been established to promote responsible rubber production and address social and environmental issues in the rubber supply chain.

Looking ahead, the future of the commercial use of rubber is likely to be shaped by technological advancements, changing consumer preferences, and the growing emphasis on sustainability. As industries continue to innovate and adapt to meet the challenges of a rapidly changing world, the rubber industry will play a vital role in providing essential materials for a wide range of applications, from automotive and transportation to construction and healthcare.

The history of the commercial use of rubber is a testament to human ingenuity, innovation, and adaptability. From its ancient origins in Mesoamerica to its global impact in the modern era, rubber has been a vital material that has shaped economies, industries, and societies around the world. By navigating challenges, embracing opportunities, and prioritizing sustainability, the rubber industry is poised to continue its growth and evolution in the years to come.

Plant geography

The British government decided to experiment by setting up plantations elsewhere but an initial attempt in Calcutta failed in the unsuitable climate.

Henry Wickham, a pioneer, adventurer and entrepreneur who was familiar with the rubber tree in Amazonia, was selected by Kew’s Joseph Hooker to collect seed which would be germinated at Kew and the seedlings shipped eventually to Southeast Asia. It was agreed that Wickham be paid £10 per 1000 seeds by the government. In 1876 Wickham provided Kew with 70,000 seeds of Para rubber collected from trees on the River Tapajos in Brazil. Three weeks later 2700 seeds ad germinated, and soon 1919 plants of Hevea brasiliensis and 32 Castilla elastica were handed over to George Thwaites, an Englishman now superintendent of the botanical gardens at Peradeniya in Sri Lanka, of these 1700 arrived in Henarathgoda Gardens near Colombo a month later. Immediately after Wickam’s return Kew gardener Robert Cross was sent to Brazil for more seed and more plants were sent to Sri Lanka and, the following year, to Singapore.  Here Henry Ridley, an English botanist, geologist and naturalist promoted the establishment of rubber tree plantations on the Malay Peninsula.

In Singapore Henry James Murton who had joined Kew as a gardener in 1873 became Superintendent of the Singapore Botanic Gardens from 1875 to 1880. Here he exchanged plants with Kew and with Ridley devising a way to speed up the selection and propagation of the plants without using seed. Notably, it was Murton who received from Kew the first seedlings of Para rubber in 1879. Most of the rubber in Malaya has come from this original introduction. He was followed as director of the Singapore Botanic Gardens by another Kewite, Nathanial Cantley.^[1]

It is not certain whether the trees growing in Southeast Asia were originally collected by Wickham or Cross but they are the ancestors of most of the naturally-produced rubber today. Plants were also sent to the Dutch Botanic garden at Bogor.

Plants were also sent by Hooker to Jamaica, Cameroon, Montserrat, Singapore, and Queensland. Those in Singapore and their offspring were inherited by Henry Ridley when he became Director of Gardens and Forests in Singapore in 1888. He conducted large-scale experiments at the Singapore Botanic Gardens, measuring the yield and trialling different ways of extracting the latex. A vulcanizing rubber factory was set up in Singapore and it was here that the first rubber tyres were made. By 1930 about 1.2 million ha of rubber plantation had been established on the Malay Peninsula and by 1930 this was the world’s major supplier followed by the Dutch East Indies and Sri Lanka – Brazil now a minor player.

By the early 20th century plantations in Malaya and Sri Lanka were losing momentum and in 1896 a Chinese plantation owner Tan Chay Yan set up 16 ha at Bukit Lintang, near Malacca to be followed by others as rubber production moved out of Brazil into Southeast Asia.^[2]

Processing & products

Among the various rubber products are the original chewing gum extracted from the Mesoamerican Manilkara Tree, Manilkara zapota; gutta-percha used to insulate electrical wires; the rubber used in golf balls; condoms; and of course the rubber in the tyres of bicycles, cars, and aircraft.

European use of rubber became possible when Americans Charles Goodyear and Thomas Hancock in 1839 found that by heating the latex with sulphur and lead oxide it would lose its unmanageable stickiness to become dry, pliable and long-lasting at high and low temperatures, a process known as vulcanization. It was later found that by using organic solvents rubber could be moulded into different forms and used to impregnate fabrics to provide waterproofing.

In 1909 a German team from the Bayer laboratory in Elberfeld, Germany, successfully polymerized isoprene, the first synthetic rubber and this was followed by others using coal tars and petrochemicals especially through World War II.

Botany

Rubber is derived from the sap (latex) of the rubber trees, mostly Castilla elastica from Central America, Hevea brasiliensis from the Amazon forest of South America, and Ficus elastica of southern and southeast Asia.

Latex, we believe, is the plant’s defence against attack from herbivores and disease and it is contained in special latex vessels in the plant. At least 2000 plants produce rubber-like latex. Trees are tapped by making V-shaped cuts in the tree trunk and collecting the latex in a cup set at its base. We now know that many plants produce different forms of rubber latex as volatile hydrocarbons called isoprenes.

Timeline – Rubber

c. 500 – Aztec and Mayan civilizations known to use latex ‘cahuchu’ (hence the French caoutchouc) to waterproof clothing and dwellings. Rubber collected in gourds was rolled into a ball and used in ritual games called ulama as observed by Spanish in the early 1500s.
1751 – French naturalist Charles Marie de la Condamine with botanist François Fresneau publishes a scientific paper on the properties of natural rubber.
1770 – Joseph Priestley coins the name ‘India-rubber’ or ‘rubber’ after seeing caoutchouc sold in cubes for artists to rub out lead pencil lines.
1823 – Charles Macintosh invents a rainproof coat, popular with hackney-cab drivers, from two fused pieces of rubber cloth and an inner layer of rubber – and known as the ‘Macintosh’.
1839 – Charles Goodyear creates vulcanized rubber.
1853 – Traders take advantage of the invention of steamships and penetrate the Amazon in search of rubber supplies
1860 – Rubber price at a high – equivalent to that of silver
1869 – James Collins identifies Para rubber as the most resilient form of rubber
1876 – Henry Wickham provides Kew with 70,000 seeds of Para rubber collected from trees on the River Tapajos in Brazil. Three weeks later 2700 seeds ad germinated, and soon 1919 plants were off to Sri Lanka with 1700 arriving in Henarathgoda Gardens near Colombo a month later
1876 – Immediately after Wickam’s return Kew gardener Robert Cross was sent to Brazil for more seed and more plants sent to Sri Lanka and, the following year, to Singapore
1888 – Henry Ridley conducts large-scale experiments into rubber at Singapore Botanic Gardens and encourages the establishment of plantations.
1888 – John Dunlop invents the pneumatic rubber bicycle tyre.
1892 – William Tilden synthesizes rubber from synthetic isoprene in the UK.
1895 – Michelin introduces the first pneumatic motorcar tyre.
1950s – The last wild rubber is exported from Brazil.
1959 – The production of synthetic rubber overtakes that of natural rubber.
1990 – Around five billion Hevea brasiliensis trees are now producing rubber on plantations around the world.
2006 – Natural rubber production is 9,680,000 tonnes for the year. Synthetic production is 12,762,000 tonnes.