Plant science in the Islamic Golden Age

Introduction – Plant Science in the Islamic Golden Age

Books on the works of Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy and others were read and debated in the cities of the Silk Road into Afghanistan, North Africa, Spain, Morocco, and Damascus this discussion stimulated by the papermaking that had originated in China, passing down the Silk Road and taken up by the Abbasids in around 750 CE, the Baghdad mills adding linen and cotton to increase suppleness.

This accumulation of learning was amassed in volumes shelved in the Baghdad Imperial Library, but also passed to capitals in the Middle East, Persia, C Asia and Spain as certain books became, in effect, the basis of educational curricula. Neoplatonist philosophy was espoused by three major Arab philosophers: al-Kindi (c.801-873), al-Razi (854-925), and al-Farabi (872-950) before the advent of the intellectual giant Ibn Sina (c. 980–1037).

Ibn Sina (Christianized to Avicenna) began his education with Porphyry’s Isogog on Aristotelian logic, Euclid’s Elements, then books on astronomy, natural science, and metaphysics, followed by those on medicine. He gained access to the Imperial Library as thanks for treating the king, who achieved a full recovery, remaining as court physician for four years. He is regarded, in general terms, as a Neoplatonist along with three other major figures in Arab philosophy: al-Kindi, al-Razi, and al-Farabi. He wrote at least 100 books, mostly on metaphysics, logic, and ethics but covering many other topics, the most extensive being his Canon of Medicine, completed in Esfahan, and based around body humours, a medical theory inherited from earlier times. For the botanist it is the extensive list of medicinal plants that stands out, including his work on teleology (‘intelligent design’). His works became familiar to Jewish, Muslim and European Christian scholars including Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 CE), the Canon lasting, as a major contribution to medicine, for over 400 years and one of the first printed books in Europe in 1485, following the Gutenberg Bible by just 20 years.[1]By 900 CE the great Greek herbals had been translated into Arabic and copies lodged in centres of learning in the Byzantine empire of the eastern Mediterranean including Byzantium, Damascus, Cairo and Baghdad which included the botanical and pharmacological lore of Persia, the great Indian medical classics, and the Orient.

In the 9th century a library with a large team of translators was set up in Baghdad with Hunayn ibn Ishaq as its head although the great translation centres were in Sicily and Toledo, often using Jewish scholars.

During this period Islamic science protected the classical botanical knowledge that had become neglected in the West. Muslim pharmacy, like the extensive herbal remedies used in China, thrived.

Historical background

During the Islamic Golden Age, which spanned roughly from the 8th to the 14th century, the significance of plants to people was profound and multifaceted. This period was marked by a flourishing of knowledge and innovation across various fields, including botany, medicine, agriculture, and horticulture. Plants played a central role in the lives of people in the Islamic world, serving not only as a vital source of sustenance but also as a key component of social, cultural, and scientific practices. In this account, we will explore the diverse ways in which plants were valued and utilized during this fascinating era.

One of the most fundamental aspects of the significance of plants during the Islamic Golden Age was their importance as a source of food, medicine, and other essential resources. Agriculture was a cornerstone of Islamic civilization, with an emphasis on cultivating a wide variety of crops and plants to meet the nutritional needs of the population. Various plant-based foods such as wheat, barley, dates, figs, olives, and citrus fruits were staples of the Islamic diet, providing essential nutrients and sustenance to people across the region.

In addition to being a source of food, plants played a crucial role in the development of Islamic medicine and pharmacology. Islamic physicians and scholars, drawing on the knowledge of earlier civilizations such as the Greeks, Persians, and Indians, conducted extensive studies of medicinal plants and their therapeutic properties. The renowned Persian polymath Ibn Sina, known in the West as Avicenna, wrote the influential medical encyclopedia “The Canon of Medicine,” which included detailed information on hundreds of medicinal plants and their uses.

Plants were also central to the practice of traditional Islamic medicine, which emphasized the concept of holistic healing and the use of herbal remedies. Herbal medicine became a sophisticated and highly respected field during the Islamic Golden Age, with physicians and pharmacists carefully studying the properties of different plants and developing intricate systems of classification and preparation.

Beyond their practical significance, plants held symbolic and cultural importance in Islamic society. Gardens, both private and public, played a central role in Islamic art, architecture, and literature, symbolizing paradise, fertility, and beauty. The Quran and Hadith, the sacred texts of Islam, frequently mention gardens as symbols of divine blessings and spiritual fulfillment, further highlighting the significance of plants in Islamic culture.

Islamic gardens, such as the famous Alhambra in Spain and the Bagh-e Fin in Iran, were meticulously designed spaces that featured a wide variety of plants, trees, fountains, and architectural elements. These gardens served as places of relaxation, contemplation, and social gatherings, reflecting the Islamic appreciation for nature and beauty.

Plants were also valued for their economic significance during the Islamic Golden Age, as trade in plant-based products such as spices, herbs, perfumes, and dyes flourished across the Islamic world. The Silk Road and other trade routes facilitated the exchange of plants and plant products between different regions, contributing to the cultural exchange and prosperity of Islamic civilization.

The significance of plants extended to the realm of science and scholarship during the Islamic Golden Age, as Muslim scientists and scholars made significant contributions to botanical knowledge and classification. The 9th-century Arab botanist Al-Dinawari, known as the “founder of Arabic botany,” wrote the seminal work “Kitab al-Nabat” (The Book of Plants), in which he classified over a thousand plant species based on their observable characteristics.

Muslim scholars also played a key role in preserving and transmitting the botanical knowledge of ancient civilizations, translating and interpreting Greek, Persian, and Indian works on plants and their properties. The renowned scholar Al-Kindi, known as the “Philosopher of the Arabs,” made important contributions to the fields of botany and agriculture, advocating for the cultivation of new crops and the improvement of agricultural practices.

The significance of plants to people during the Islamic Golden Age was further underscored by their role in shaping the built environment and urban landscapes of Islamic cities. Gardens, orchards, and green spaces were integrated into the design of mosques, palaces, and public buildings, creating harmonious and aesthetically pleasing environments that reflected the Islamic appreciation for nature and symmetry.

Islamic architecture often featured intricate geometric patterns and motifs inspired by plant forms, such as the arabesque, a decorative element consisting of intertwined foliage and floral designs. These botanical motifs were not merely decorative but held deeper symbolic meanings, reflecting the interconnectedness of the natural world and the divine order inherent in creation.

In conclusion, the significance of plants to people during the Islamic Golden Age was profound and multifaceted, encompassing their roles as a vital source of food, medicine, cultural symbolism, economic prosperity, scientific inquiry, and aesthetic inspiration. Plants played a central role in shaping the physical, social, and intellectual landscapes of Islamic civilization, embodying the deep reverence and respect that Muslims held for the natural world and its bountiful gifts. As we look back on this remarkable era of history, we are reminded of the enduring importance of plants in enriching and sustaining human life in all its dimensions (AI Sider July 2024).

Muslim medicine

Much of the classical learning passed to the Arab world with Arab conquests beginning in about 650 CE and resulting in a Muslim golden Age. Arabic learning was extremely popular in Christendom partly because of the fascination with the Arab prosperity that followed from the control of trade routes.

Best known work of this period is a herbal of over 650 species by the brilliant Arab scholar Avicenna (Ibn-Sīnā, c. 980-1037), many of these species were described here for the first time in his Canon of Medicine completed in 1025 and used throughout the Middle Ages.

Ibn Sina (c. 980 – 1037) was philosopher-physician connected to three centuries of intellectual thought: the Central Asian Arab dynasty of the Abbasids. In 750 CE the Abbasids replaced the Umayyads in what is present-day Iraq, founding Baghdad as the capital of an Islamic Empire. Here Greek and Latin works of art and science were translated into Arabic. The translators were scholars from captured lands – Jews, Nestorian Christians, Zoroastrians – who combined, and added to, the learning of Persia, India, the Middle East, Greece, Egypt and Rome. Indeed, almost all major scientific breakthroughs of the 9th and 10th centuries were made by scholars of the Asian Muslim courts.^[1]

Scholars at the court of Abbasid kings included Hindu mathematicians who brought Arabic numeral notation. By 850 CE mathematician al-Khwarizm (derivation of the world ‘algorithm’) had combined Euclidian and Hindu maths to produce developments in algebra, trigonometry, linear and quadratic equations, tables of sines, tangents and cotangents, the use of zero and much more. Inventions included the plain and spherical astrolabe and creation of more accurate star charts with a Royal Observatory built in Baghdad. Trade brought with it geographic knowledge with its own scholarly community so that, by 850 CE, accounts of China were circulating in the Middle East. Among the leading physicians was Persian clinician al-Razi (865-925) whose medical encyclopaedia The Comprehensive Book on Medicine (Kitab al-Hawi fi al-tibb) known as the Hawi was popular for several centuries in both Europe and Asia.^[1]