Mesoamerican empires

Introduction – Mesoamerican Empires

Mesoamerica was the region where pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries and one of the six cradles of ancient civilization that arose independently. Around 7000 BCE there was the domestication of cacao, maize, beans, tomato, squash and chili, as well as the turkey and dog which facilitated the construction of agricultural villages.

Early complex civilizations included the Olmec culture in the Gulf of Mexico who traded with other cultures in Chiapas, Guatemala, and Oaxaca and laid the foundation for Mesoamerican cultural development along much of the Pacific coast. There followed the Pre-classic period, when urban polities developed among the Maya and during this period, the first true Mesoamerican writing systems arose in the Epi-Olmec and the Zapotec cultures, reaching its zenith in Classic Maya hieroglyphic script.

In Central Mexico, the height of the Classic period saw the ascendancy of the city of Teotihuacan, which formed a military and commercial empire whose political influence stretched south into the Maya area and northward. Upon the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 CE competition between several important political centers in central Mexico – such as Xochicalco and Cholula – ensued. At this time during the Epi-Classic period, the Nahua peoples began moved south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of Oto-Manguean languages. During the early post-Classic period, Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec cuiture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec, and the lowland Maya area had important centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán. Towards the end of the post-Classic period the Aztecs of Central Mexico built a tributary empire covering most of central Mesoamerica. The distinct Mesoamerican cultural tradition ended with the Spanish conquest in the 16th century.

Mesoamerican indigenous cultures were gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule. Aspects of the indigenous culture still survive as ancestral languages and practices.

Trade networks exchanged obsidian, jade, cacao, cinnabar, Spondylus shells, hematite, and ceramics. Though aware of the wheel and metallurgy these were not regarded as important. Mesoamerica is one of only three regions of the world where writing is known to have independently developed (the others being ancient Sumer and China). Social stratification, complex religious traditions, vigesimal numeric system, complex calendar.

History of the Mesoamerican empires

The Mesoamerican empires were a collection of advanced civilizations that flourished in what is now modern-day Mexico and Central America. These empires, including the Aztec, Maya, and Inca, were some of the most powerful and advanced societies in the pre-Columbian Americas. Their histories are rich with cultural achievements, impressive architecture, and complex political structures.

The Aztecs were one of the most well-known Mesoamerican empires. They originated as a nomadic group from northern Mexico and settled in the Valley of Mexico around the 14th century. The Aztec empire was a militaristic society that engaged in constant war with neighboring regions. They believed in the idea of human sacrifice to appease their gods, and their capital city of Tenochtitlan was a breathtaking metropolis built on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco.

The Aztecs were also skilled engineers and architects, with intricate systems of aqueducts and causeways connecting their city to the mainland. They developed a sophisticated calendar and a complex writing system based on pictographs, which was used to record their history and religious beliefs. The Aztecs also had a highly stratified social structure, with a ruling class of nobles, priests, and warriors at the top, followed by commoners and slaves.

The Maya civilization was another major Mesoamerican empire that reached its peak around 250-900 AD. The Maya inhabited the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, and parts of Honduras and El Salvador. They were known for their advanced knowledge of astronomy, mathematics, and writing. The Maya developed a sophisticated calendar system, as well as elaborate city-states with stunning pyramids, temples, and palaces.

The Maya were great artisans, producing intricate pottery, jade carvings, and textiles. They also had a complex social structure, with a ruling class of kings and priests who held political and religious power. The Maya religion revolved around a pantheon of gods and goddesses, with rituals that included human sacrifice.

The Inca empire was the largest and most powerful Mesoamerican empire, stretching from modern-day Ecuador to Chile. The Inca civilization emerged around 1438 AD and lasted until the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. The Inca were skilled engineers, building impressive roads and bridges to connect their vast empire. They also developed a system of terraced agriculture, allowing them to grow crops in the rugged Andean mountains.

The Inca worshipped the sun god Inti, and their ruler, known as the Sapa Inca, was considered a divine figure. The Inca had a highly centralized government, with a complex bureaucracy and a system of tribute and labor obligations. They also constructed magnificent stone structures, including the famous Machu Picchu citadel, which served as a royal estate and religious center.

Despite their impressive achievements, the Mesoamerican empires eventually declined due to a combination of factors. The arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the early 16th century brought new diseases, such as smallpox, which decimated the native populations. The Spanish also imposed harsh labor practices and forced conversions to Christianity, leading to widespread revolts and uprisings.

The fall of the Mesoamerican empires marks a tragic chapter in history, as these once-great civilizations were nearly wiped out by European colonization. However, their legacy lives on in the rich cultural heritage and archaeological wonders that remain today. The Aztec, Maya, and Inca empires continue to inspire awe and admiration, showcasing the heights of human achievement in the ancient Americas.

The following glossary draws attention to the grounding of human cognitive agency in the universal (shared) characteristics of biological agency. These shared traits are a consequence of common evolutionary ancestry and they do not (meaningfully) occur in inanimate objects.

These mind-like traits have been widely interpreted as cognitive metaphors. Rather than being creations of the human mind, they are the real non-cognitive evolutionary antecedents to human cognitive traits.  

Each entry below begins with our anthropocentric cognitive understanding of the concept and is followed, in italics, by its grounding or ancestral properties as they exist in biological agency.

Adaptation – for some reason we accept that plants can ‘adapt’ both short-term by responding to their conditions of existence, and long-term by genetic alteration. For example, in the short-term, they respond to light direction and intensity in a way that maximizes sunlight absorption. This is driven by a genetic program and not conscious understanding. These strategies could be thought of as a type of accumulated knowledge that has been encoded in their genetic makeup.
The adjustment of organisms to their conditions of existence by using information processing, a behavioral orientation, and functional integration

Agency – The human capacity to act autonomously by, for example, making independent moral judgments.
The exercise of autonomous goal-directed behavior.

Biological agency – The capacity to act on, and respond to the conditions of existence in an autonomous and flexible goal-directed way that expresses the universal, objective, and ultimate propensity to survive, reproduce, and flourish

Cognition – The human mental processes and activities related to acquiring, processing, storing, and using of knowledge.
The processes and activities related to acquiring, processing, storing, and using of information by a biological agent.

Consciousness – The human awareness of immediate experiences. Also, the entire range of mental processes, including cognitive functions such as self-awareness, introspection, reasoning, memory, imagination, and the capacity for abstract thought. The totality of an individual’s subjective experiences and mental life.
The capacity of a biological agent to orientate itself in relation to space, time, & its conditions of existence

Communication – The exchange of knowledge between humans by both verbal and non-verbal means.
The exchange of information. Many species communicate with conspecifics using intricate vocalizations, body language, or chemical signals. Some animals, like dolphins and certain bird species, are capable of complex vocalizations with distinct meanings, while others, like ants and bees, use pheromones to convey information about food sources, danger, or mating opportunities.

Social learning – Human cultural evolution is a non-genetic consequence of the cultural accumulation and transmission of information. It has resulted in humans creating their own environments of evolutionary adaptation.
Social animals often learn by observing and imitating the behaviors of others within their social group. This can include acquiring new foraging techniques, communication signals, or even cultural traditions. Chimpanzees, for instance, have been observed to learn tool-use techniques from one another.

Experience – event(s) that a human goes through or encounters, often characterized by being special in some way – by, say, uniqueness or personal involvement; sometimes the totality of life events, knowledge, emotions, and perceptions and overall comprehension and awareness of the world.
The event(s) that influence the umwelt of a biological agent and the way these are processed as information.

Human agency – A specialized form of biological agency that uses language and cognition.

Intelligence – The ability to acquire, understand and apply knowledge and reason to solve problems and adapt to new situations.
The capacity to acquire and process information that facilitates adaptation to the circumstances of existence and the attainment of goals.

Intention – A conscious attitude towards the end or purpose of actions or conduct
A goal-directed behavioral orientation

Intentionality – The ‘aboutness’ or directedness of our thoughts, beliefs, desires, and perceptions towards something external to them.
Behavior that is goal-directed i.e. directed towards objects, properties, or states of affairs

Knowledge – All forms of human awareness and comprehension of the world, including both subjective and objective aspects of our understanding.
Information accumulated by an agent about its conditions of existence

Learning – The ability for personal growth and development through the processes of acquiring knowledge and skills. The capacity to process and accumulate information that may facilitate adaptation to the circumstances of existence and the attainment of goals. Many organisms exhibit the ability to learn from past experiences and modify their behavior accordingly. For instance, classical conditioning, where an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a significant event, has been observed in various species, including invertebrates like fruit flies, molluscs, and even plants.

Memory – The ability of the mind to store and recall information, experiences, and knowledge.
The capacity for information storage and retrieval.

Perception – the human processing of sensory stimuli through the sensory system that includes the five traditional senses of sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch, but sometimes including cognitive factors like mental processes, beliefs, desires, reason and their role in experience.
The processing of the full range of experiential information (the umwelt) of a biological agent.

Purpose – the reason (end, aim, or goal) why something exists or is done, made, used etc.; (human) the object of conscious intention.
The goal of a biological agent, paradigmatically a living organism, but also the natural end-state, limit, or reason for a structure, process, or behavior (often referred to in this sense as a function).

Reason (problem-solving) – the mental faculty that enables individuals to think, analyze, and draw conclusions logically and rationally – to make sound judgments based on evidence and a structured thought process.
The capacity to process information in a way that facilitates the attainment of goals. Some animals demonstrate problem-solving skills when faced with novel challenges in their environment. For example, certain bird species, such as crows and parrots, are known for their ability to use tools creatively to obtain food or solve complex tasks.

Value – The word ‘value’ can be used as both a verb or a noun. When used in a human context it refers to the importance or significance attached to something based on emotional, objective or other factors. Values can include moral, ethical, cultural, and personal principles that guide behavior and decision-making.
A behavioral propensity or disposition (towards).

First published on the internet – 1 March 2019

… 26 July 2023 – minor update

 
Tikal is one of the largest archaeological sites, urban centers, and tourist attractions of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. It is located in the archaeological region of the Petén Basin in what is now northern Guatemala. Courtesy Wikimedia Commons – chensiyuan – 2009