Oriental gardens

Introduction – Oriental gardens

Gardens hold a significant place in the cultural landscape of Asia, serving as tranquil sanctuaries, artistic expressions, and reflections of social hierarchy.

The development of gardens in Asia has been a rich and diverse journey that has been shaped by various influences over the centuries. From the majestic imperial gardens of China to the serene Zen gardens of Japan, the evolution of garden design in Asia reflects not only the region’s deep connection to nature but also the cross-cultural exchanges that have enriched its horticultural traditions.

The history of gardens in Asia dates back thousands of years, with early examples found in ancient civilizations such as those of Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. However, it was in China where garden design truly flourished, with the creation of elaborate gardens that served both aesthetic and functional purposes. The earliest recorded Chinese gardens can be traced back to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE), where gardens were designed as symbols of power and prestige for the ruling elite. These gardens featured carefully manicured landscapes, ornamental plants, and artificial ponds, creating a harmonious balance between man-made structures and natural elements. One of the most famous examples of Chinese garden design is the Imperial Garden in the Forbidden City of Beijing. Constructed during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), this garden exemplifies the principles of feng shui, with its carefully arranged paths, pavilions, and plantings designed to promote harmony and balance. The integration of architecture, water features, and plantings in Chinese gardens reflects a holistic approach to landscape design that seeks to evoke a sense of tranquility and contemplation. As Chinese cultural influence spread throughout Asia, so too did its gardening traditions. The imperial gardens of Japan, known as kaiyū-shiki-teien, were heavily influenced by Chinese garden design principles, particularly during the Heian period (794-1185).

Japanese gardens are characterized by their minimalist aesthetic, with an emphasis on simplicity, symbolism, and the use of natural materials such as rocks, gravel, and moss. Zen gardens, in particular, are a product of this aesthetic, with their dry landscapes designed to evoke a sense of meditation and mindfulness. The Mughal gardens of India also draw inspiration from Chinese and Persian garden design, blending Islamic architectural motifs with lush plantings and flowing water features. The gardens of the Taj Mahal, for example, feature geometric layouts, reflecting pools, and intricate floral patterns that symbolize paradise on earth. These gardens served as extensions of the Mughal palaces, providing a sanctuary for the royal family and their guests to escape the heat and chaos of the city. Throughout Asia, gardens have played a central role in shaping social relationships and cultural identities.

In Korea, for example, the tradition of Korean gardens can be traced back to the Three Kingdoms period (57 BCE-668 CE), where gardens were designed to reflect Confucian values of harmony, balance, and hierarchy. The Secret Garden of Changdeokgung Palace in Seoul is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that exemplifies this tradition, with its serene ponds, pavilions, and meticulously pruned trees symbolizing the order and balance of the cosmos.

The influence of Western garden design on Asia began in the 16th century with the arrival of European colonists and missionaries. European-style formal gardens, characterized by symmetrical layouts, geometric pathways, and ornamental hedges, began to appear in Asia alongside traditional garden styles. The British colonization of India, for example, led to the creation of botanical gardens such as the Lalbagh Botanical Garden in Bengaluru, which served as centers for scientific research and the cultivation of exotic plant species. During the colonial period, Western influences also began to shape garden design in Japan and China. Japanese gardens, in particular, underwent a period of transformation known as the “English garden boom” in the late 19th century, with Japanese designers incorporating Western elements such as lawns, flower beds, and formal flower arrangements into their designs. Similarly, the construction of Western-style public parks in cities like Shanghai and Hong Kong reflected a growing interest in modern urban planning and the incorporation of green spaces into densely populated urban environments.

The exchange of ideas and techniques between East and West continued into the 20th century, with Asian garden designers drawing inspiration from Western landscape architects such as Frederick Law Olmsted and Capability Brown. Modern Asian gardens, such as the Singapore Botanic Gardens and the Gardens by the Bay, combine traditional Asian design principles with Western innovations in sustainability, technology, and ecological conservation. These gardens serve not only as tourist attractions but also as educational resources for promoting environmental awareness and biodiversity conservation. The development of gardens in Asia is a testament to the region’s rich cultural heritage, artistic ingenuity, and deep connection to nature. From the imperial splendor of Chinese gardens to the Zen simplicity of Japanese gardens, the evolution of garden design in Asia reflects a merging of indigenous traditions with external influences from the West. As Asia continues to embrace new technologies and sustainable practices in garden design, the future of Asian gardens promises to be a harmonious blend of past and present, honoring the timeless beauty and wisdom of the natural world (AI Sider July 2024).

China

Chinese garden heritage arrived in Britain via Japan.

As in the West, Chinese garden traditions emerged under the influence of the powerful, wealthy and scholarly officials of the higher ranks of society. Gardens related to wider philosophical concerns. Confucianism considered mostly human relations (self-actualization), while Daoism was a more expansive world view, relating humans to the world and cosmos (love of nature) having a more relaxed approach to existence than the formal Confucian insistence on rights and rituals.[3] Formal rectilinear houses (fang-zi – suggesting social order, and often occupied by many people) were separate from the gardens (yuan– suggesting spontaneity, creative imagination, and harmony with nature).

Connections with Western traditions of a similar and ancient period are uncanny – perhaps made more similar by Western interpretation. Ancient rulers preserved large areas of land for hunting. Legend tells of the artificial lakes and terraces of Zhou dynasty rulers (c. 1027-256 BCE). Qin Shi Hang unified the disparate Chinese states in 221 BCE and in his Shanglin Park he demonstrated his imperial power by assembling collections of rare animals and plants, many introduced from conquered territories in a tradition continued by Han Emperors from (206 BCE – 220 CE). Poetry and literature of this period extols the virtues of the garden as a universal microcosm, especially the themes of: natural landscape embellished; imperial riches symbolized; and Island of the Immortals recreated. Han Emperor Wudi associated gardens with Chinese Immortals by constructing magical islands considered replicas of their spiritual home. This imperial tradition also included vast palace precincts, orchards, farmland, hunting parks, and lakes. To this was added elaborate entertainments with artificial structures of various kinds. The theme of magnificent gardens passed into other dynasties and included elaborate water features.[4] Even the last dynasty of Manchus, which ruled China for 250 years from the 17th century, expected a magnificent garden as a relaxing reward in a retirement free from public duties.[5]

Records of private gardens before the Han dynasty are scarce but lakes and constructed rockeries with streams are reported in the Han cities along the Yellow River (Huang He). During the Han dynasty Confucianism was strong and substantial gardens were more likely to be constructed as places of peace and self-cultivation by elite bureaucrats of the civil service (entered via demanding examinations on the Chinese classics) than the aristocracy.(K. p. 114)

From the 5th century Buddhism and its monasteries exerted an increasing influence as gardens became more spiritual interpretations of nature, this being associated with movements in poetry and landscape painting epitomised in the Tang Dynasty (618-907) country estate of Buddhist Wang Wei whose scroll painting and poems were admired down the ages. Also in the Tang dynasty the collection and arrangement of rocks reached new heights (smaller rocks and pebbles were later preferred in Japan). By the time of the Song Dynasty (960-1279), regarded as a golden age of gardens and arts in general, rocks were an integral part of every garden, the larger ones opened to the public on festival days.(K. p. 114)

The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) continued the idea of gardens as spiritual places for the indulgence of literary and artistic interests. These traditions were recorded in the most comprehensive treatise on gardening in China, the Yuan Ye of 1634. From the mid 16th century private gardens, of both scholars and merchants, with their pools and pavilions flourished in the cities. Some remain behind walls in the centre of cities.(K. 115)

The Chinese word for landscape, shanshui, means ‘hills and waters’ and this emphasis on hard landscape is key to the Chinese garden. To these basic elements are added archiecture and only then are trees, shrubs, and flowers introduced. Balance and harmony through feng shui principles and the philosophy of yin and yang are critical elements of garden philosophy.(K. 115) Plants are favoured for their symbolism, architectural impact, scent, and traditional value (often through literary associations) rather than for their variety – like the pine, plum, and bamboo as the ‘Three Friends of Winter’. (K. 116) Favourites include the chrysanthemum (probably the longest cultivated flower in China), lotus, bamboo, peach, orchid, peony and bonsai is popular. Another significant difference from the West is the preference for water over lawns. Chinese gardens of the kind discussed were not academically stifling, they were created for relaxation and the gentle engagement and stimulation of the intellect through a diversity of arts.(K. 116)

Chinese gardens
Speculation about Chinese gardens was fuelled by stories recounted by returning Dutch and Flemish traders recorded by William Temple (originator of the English landscape originator of the English landscape garden movement) in the 1680s.(Brown p. 176). Father Attiret gives an early account of the Emperor’s summer retreat in Ch’ien-lung The Garden of Perfect Brightness which was published in Paris in 1749 (English translation 1752) as one of th efirst substantial garden descriptions.

Botanical historian Métailié approaches Chinese gardens by considering the relation between the owners and their plants rather than detailing their structure – or cultural, social and economic functions. As usual it is the academic, or wealthy, high-ranking government officials, and merchants – the literati – who have bequeathed us a written account of their motivations.

Parallels with Western garden tradition are uncanny and we must be aware of viewing history through western eyes. From antiquity to the 17th century come the words yuan (park) and yuan you and yuan ye (enclosed park) and the apparent distinction between princely park and enclosure, orchards, and kitchen gardens. From the Xi Jin dynasty (265-316) comes yuan lin as a pleasure garden of various sizes and distinguished from the above by Métailié through the expression ‘villa garden’.

We only know of these gardens from the historical literature, only one account the Yuan ye (The Figuration of Gardens) by Ji Cheng, written from 1631 to 1634, tells us about the structural features of the great parks of antiquity although this century especially produced other technical texts and personal accounts but few that provide plant inventories.

A poem of the 11th century, Shi jing, refers to a pleasure garden like a game reserve with beautiful birds and animals and a lake. It is a ‘Park of Marvels’ with a ‘Pool of Marvels.’

Qin period
An imperial park of the Qin was ruined at the beginning of the Han dynasty but was restored and enlarged as 137 BCE under Han emperor Wu (ruled (140-87 BCE). The Xi jing za ji of Ge Hong (283-364) contains a list of its plants including reference to cultivars like the 10 kinds of ‘pears’ that included purple and bronze forms, different-shaped leaves, selections from the Gobi Desert resistant to cold, gifts from other parts of China. Seven kinds of jujube, four chestnuts, and 10 peaches, 15 plums, three apples etc.(p. 448). This garden contains botanical and horticultural rarities including plants brought as tribute suggesting, as in similar Western gardens, the power, influence, economic awareness, and aesthetic sensitivity of the Emperor.

Tang (618-907)
This period saw a variation of the theme of a garden as a microcosm of nature to a greater appreciation of individual plants and animals, especially birds, that occurred in the gardens of the scholar literati as exemplified by the plant and rock garden of Li Deyu (787-850) near Luoyang around 825.

Li Deyu had read the Yuan ting cao mu shu (c. 690-701 – Commentaries on Garden Plants), now lost, using it to develop his own ideas supplemented by further knowledge of plant names gained by studying the poems of the Shi jing His list of ornamental plants and rocks included gifts of ornamental plants as well as a collection of medicinal plants. He gives the provenance, most coming from the lower Yangtzi valley. His collections probably constitutes a ‘miniature imperial park of the ancient sort’,(Schafer 1965, p.108) Li Deyu being more a plant collector than a garden artist his collection also resembled a botanical garden.

Buddhism probably arrived in China in the first century Han dynasty brought by missionaries from India. The monasteries included kitchen gardens, orchards, trees and ornamental plants, the food plants catering for a vegetarian diet. The monks, both those arriving and those returning from overseas, imported new plants. Plants recorded as arriving from the West by this method included: Terminalia chebula, Myrobolan; Shorea robusta, Robust Shorea; and Artocarpus heterophyllus, Jackfruit.(p. 453)

Chinese gardens literature
Literature The Chinese literature on plants comprised books like western encyclopaedias, dictionaries, horticultural monographs, agricultural treatises, and materia medica. Most authoritative among Western commentators on the Chinese garden is Maggie Keswick. Chinese gardening philosophies have arrived in the West largely via Japan.

Japan

The history of Japanese gardens is a reflection of the rich cultural heritage and deep connection to nature that has characterized Japanese society for centuries. These meticulously designed and carefully curated spaces have played a central role in Japanese art and culture, serving as places of spiritual reflection, artistic inspiration, and harmony with the natural world.

The evolution of Japanese gardens can be traced back to ancient times, with each period contributing unique characteristics and elements to the art of garden design. The origins of Japanese gardens can be found in the ancient practices of Shinto and Buddhist traditions, which emphasized the importance of living in harmony with nature and creating sacred spaces for meditation and worship. The earliest known gardens in Japan were simple landscapes surrounding Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples, designed to evoke a sense of tranquility and spiritual enlightenment.

These early gardens featured natural elements such as stones, water, and trees, arranged in a harmonious composition that reflected the seasonal changes and natural beauty of the Japanese landscape.

During the Nara period (710-794) and Heian period (794-1185), Japanese garden design flourished as an integral part of the aristocratic lifestyle. Influenced by Chinese garden aesthetics, Japanese gardens of this period were characterized by the use of borrowed scenery (shakkei), where the surrounding natural landscape was incorporated into the garden design to create a seamless connection between the man-made and natural elements. The construction of ponds, streams, and bridges became common features in Japanese gardens, symbolizing the union of opposites and the flow of life.

The Kamakura period (1185-1333) marked a shift in Japanese garden design towards a simpler and more rustic aesthetic, influenced by Zen Buddhism and the teachings of Chinese Zen monks. Zen gardens, known as karesansui, emerged during this period as a form of meditation and contemplation, featuring dry rock gardens with raked gravel symbolizing water and islands or mountains. These minimalist designs emphasized the purity of form and the importance of empty space, encouraging viewers to contemplate the essence of nature and the transience of life.

The Muromachi period (1336-1573) saw the rise of the tea ceremony and the development of tea gardens (chaniwa) as integral components of Japanese garden design. Tea gardens were designed to create a serene and contemplative atmosphere for the tea ceremony, with carefully placed stones, lanterns, and water basins evoking a sense of harmony and balance. The concept of wabi-sabi, embracing imperfection and impermanence, became central to the aesthetics of Japanese gardens during this period, emphasizing the beauty of simplicity and the passage of time.

The Momoyama period (1573-1603) and Edo period (1603-1868) witnessed the refinement and popularization of Japanese gardens among the samurai class and wealthy merchants. Prominent garden designers such as Kobori Enshu and tea masters like Sen no Rikyu played a vital role in shaping the aesthetics of Japanese gardens, emphasizing the principles of asymmetry, balance, and restraint. Gardens of this period featured strolling paths, teahouses, and carefully curated plantings, creating immersive and sensory experiences for visitors to enjoy.

The Meiji period (1868-1912) marked a period of modernization and Westernization in Japan, leading to changes in garden design influenced by Western landscape architecture and garden design principles. Japanese gardens of this period often incorporated elements of European garden styles, such as formal flower beds, lawns, and exotic plant species, alongside traditional Japanese elements like lanterns and bridges. Despite these influences, traditional Japanese garden design continued to thrive, with the preservation of historic gardens and the creation of new gardens reflecting the enduring cultural significance of these tranquil and timeless spaces.

In the modern era, Japanese gardens continue to be celebrated for their timeless beauty, spiritual depth, and harmonious design principles. Contemporary garden designers draw inspiration from traditional Japanese aesthetics while incorporating innovative techniques and materials to create new expressions of Japanese garden art. Public and private gardens throughout Japan and around the world serve as living testaments to the enduring legacy of Japanese garden design, inviting visitors to experience moments of tranquility, contemplation, and connection with nature. In conclusion, the history of Japanese gardens is a testament to the enduring legacy of Japanese culture and its profound relationship with nature.

From the ancient practices of Shinto and Buddhism to the refined aesthetics of Zen gardens and tea gardens, Japanese garden design has evolved over centuries to embody the values of harmony, simplicity, and impermanence. As custodians of this rich cultural heritage, it is essential to preserve and promote the art of Japanese gardens for future generations to appreciate and enjoy, ensuring that these sacred spaces continue to inspire and uplift the human spirit for years to come.

Korea

The history of gardens and gardening in Korea is a reflection of the nation’s cultural, philosophical, and environmental evolution. Throughout the ages, Korean gardens have not only served aesthetic purposes but also embodied spiritual and social significance, mirroring the harmony between nature and humanity that is a cornerstone of Korean culture.

The origins of Korean gardens can be traced back to the Three Kingdoms Period (57 BC – 668 AD), when the importance of nature was recognized in the construction of royal and noble estates. These early gardens were often simple, featuring native plants and trees, serving as tranquil retreats for the elite. The influence of Confucianism during the subsequent Unified Silla Dynasty (668-935 AD) introduced an ideological shift towards valuing simplicity, modesty, and harmony with nature. Gardens began to reflect these principles, often integrating natural landscapes with human-made structures, fostering a deep connection between people and their environment.

The Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) further advanced the art of gardening, which was influenced by the evolving aesthetics of the period. Elite gardens began incorporating elements such as lotus ponds, which were symbols of purity, and pavilions from which one could enjoy scenic views. The use of specific plants such as azaleas and chrysanthemums became popular, as these flowers were associated with Korean cultural identity. Importantly, the practice of creating gardens not only reflected aesthetic sensibilities but also became a medium for philosophical expression, rooted in the principles of Daoism and Buddhism that emphasized living harmoniously with nature.

The Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) marked a pivotal period in Korean gardening history, characterized by the systematic categorization of nature and the establishment of garden design principles based on the teachings of Confucianism. It was during this time that formal gardens, known as ‘Seonundang,’ emerged, featuring geometric layouts, stone arrangements, and a more structured approach to plant placement. The influence of Chinese garden aesthetics also became pronounced, yet Korean gardens maintained a unique identity, emphasizing local flora and the natural beauty of the landscape.

As modernity approached, the introduction of Western gardening techniques in the late 19th and early 20th centuries sparked a new era in garden design. This period saw an amalgamation of traditional Korean styles with Western influences, leading to the establishment of public parks and botanical gardens that were designed to cater to a wider audience. The impending challenges of rapid urbanization necessitated innovative approaches to gardening, with greater emphasis on sustainability and environmental awareness.

In contemporary Korea, the appreciation for gardens has witnessed a resurgence, manifesting in both private and public spaces that prioritize ecological balance and sustainable practices. Urban gardening initiatives, community gardens, and traditional garden restoration projects have been embraced, reflecting a growing awareness of nature’s importance in the bustling urban landscape. Korean gardens today not only serve as aesthetic havens but also as spaces for education, social interaction, and environmental conservation.

In summary, the history of gardens and gardening in Korea is a vivid tapestry woven from ancient practices, philosophical beliefs, and the adaptive spirit of the Korean people. From the simple naturalistic gardens of the Three Kingdoms to the sophisticated and sustainable gardens of today, this history underscores the enduring relationship between Koreans and their environment. As Korea continues to evolve, its gardens remain a testament to the timeless values of beauty, tranquility, and harmony with nature (AI Sider July 2024).

South-East Asia

Gardens and gardening have held significant cultural, social, and ecological importance in South-East Asia for centuries. The region, known for its rich biodiversity and unique climatic conditions, has fostered a variety of gardening practices that reflect its diverse cultures and traditions. From the ancient times through colonial periods to modern-day practices, the evolution of gardens in South-East Asia provides an insightful glimpse into the interplay between nature, culture, and humanity.

Ancient Beginnings
The history of gardening in South-East Asia can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where agriculture was one of the essential components of societal development. The region’s varied climates—from humid tropical to cooler mountainous areas—permitted the cultivation of a wide range of plants. Archaeological evidence suggests that some of the earliest gardens in South-East Asia were created by the Funan and Chenla kingdoms (1st century to 6th century CE) in present-day Cambodia and Vietnam. These early gardens often featured rice paddies, which were significant for subsistence, alongside various medicinal and ornamental plants.

In addition to functional gardens, ancient texts and inscriptions indicate the presence of botanical gardens, which were specific sites for the cultivation and study of plants. The famous Khmer Empire (9th to 15th centuries) exhibited remarkable advances in horticulture, specifically in the development of irrigation systems that facilitated the growth of lush gardens surrounding temples, such as the iconic Angkor Wat. The integration of gardens into religious settings underscored the cultural reverence for nature and the role gardens played in spirituality.

The Influence of Trade and Cultural Exchanges
As trade routes expanded through South-East Asia, the region’s gardens absorbed influences from various cultures. The arrival of spices and textiles drawn along maritime trade routes introduced new horticultural practices and exotic plants. Chinese, Indian, and Persian Garden aesthetics began to infiltrate South-East Asia during the medieval period, leading to the emergence of ornate gardens characterized by principles of symmetry and balance.

In the 13th to 15th centuries, the Majapahit Empire in Indonesia exemplified the fusion of native and foreign garden styles. The adoption of elements such as water features and carefully arranged flora was prominent in royal gardens, which often served as spaces for meditation and leisure. The intricate layout and symbolism of these gardens reflected the empire’s wealth and sophistication, as well as its connection to nature.

Colonial Impact
The arrival of European colonial powers in the 16th century marked a profound shift in the gardening landscape of South-East Asia. Colonial administrators and settlers brought their own gardens and agricultural products, which often led to the introduction of non-native species. The British in Malaya, Dutch in Indonesia, and French in Indochina began to shape the gardens according to their aesthetic preferences, sometimes disregarding local practices.

Colonial botanical gardens, such as the Singapore Botanic Gardens established in 1859, were significant not only for the introduction of commercial crops like rubber and coffee but also for the conservation and study of South-East Asian flora. These gardens became centers for scientific research and botanical exchange, impacting regional agricultural practices and the understanding of indigenous plant species.

The legacy of colonial gardening practices continues to affect the region today. Many gardens established during this period still exist, preserving historical plant species while also becoming integral to national identities and tourism.

Contemporary Practices
In modern South-East Asia, gardening has evolved to encompass a blend of traditional and contemporary practices. Urbanization and modernization have shaped the role of gardening, with a growing emphasis on sustainability and community engagement. Ornamental gardening has gained popularity, with many cities implementing green spaces as part of urban development initiatives. Vertical gardens and green roofs have emerged in dense urban areas, responding to environmental challenges while enhancing aesthetic appeal.

Furthermore, indigenous gardening practices, such as permaculture and organic gardening, have resurged as communities recognize the importance of biodiversity and ecological balance. Traditional knowledge aimed at maintaining the soil, conserving water, and fostering native plant species is being integrated into modern gardening practices, contributing to food security and ecological resilience.

Cultural Significance
Gardens in South-East Asia are not merely confined to their horticultural functions; they often hold symbolic meanings tied to cultural heritage and identity. Festivals, rituals, and daily life are often intertwined with the garden’s significance, as seen in the Balinese subak system, where rice terraces are not only agricultural landscapes but also sacred spaces reflecting communal governance and respect for water resources.

Moreover, gardens serve as spaces for socialization, recreation, and education. Community gardens promote social cohesion, awareness of environmental issues, and provide a platform for cultural exchange among diverse groups.

The history of gardens and gardening in South-East Asia is an intricate tapestry woven with the threads of ancient wisdom, cross-cultural influences, colonial legacies, and contemporary challenges. As South-East Asian societies continue to navigate the complexities of modernization while holding onto their rich gardening traditions, the relevance of gardens as a means of fostering connection with nature, culture, and community remains steadfast. The enduring legacy and evolution of gardening in this vibrant region attest to its fundamental role in shaping identities and sustaining environments for generations to come (AI July 2024)..